Reading long texts written in academic English can be a challenge for international students. It's often helpful to look for the verbs in each sentence, as these words usually are critical to understanding the meaning. Take this example, from a review of a book on international relations:
The enduring presence of warfare throughout human history remains the focus of much international relations scholarship. It conditions the core assumptions that underpin various theories of state and the motivations inherent in political action.
Can you find the verbs in the sentences above?
They are here:
The enduring presence of warfare throughout human history remains the focus of much international relations scholarship. It conditions the core assumptions that underpin various theories of state and the motivations inherent in political action.
Once you have found the verbs the meaning becomes simpler:
1. Warfare remains the focus of scholarship
2. Warfare conditions the assumptions
that underpin theories of state
If necessary, use a dictionary to check the meaning of these verbs and you will find the rest of the text easier to understand. Then keep a note of the verbs and try to use them in your own writing.
Many people find that English can be a confusing language - even the English!
Answers to the quiz in the last post (correct sentences in italics):
1. Sites are places where something happens - camp site, building site
A sight is something worth looking at (NB sightseeing):
Tower Bridge is one of the most famous sights in London.
2. Past is a preposition (go past the station) or a noun (The past is a mystery)
To pass is a verb meaning to succeed or to overtake:
Only seven out of a class of 16 passed the examination.
3. Quiet is an adjective meaning not loud. But it is often confused with the modifier quite:
The students agreed that the lecture was quite interesting.
4. Loose is an adjective meaning 'not tight' (a loose fitting sweater)
To lose is a verb - the opposite of 'gain' or 'find'.
Millions of people are trying to lose weight.
5. Rise and raise are both verbs with a similar meaning. But to raise needs an agent -
He raised his arm, but the sun rises at seven thirty:
The oil company is planning to raise prices next year.
6. Effect is generally a noun - The worries had an effect on her health
Affect is a verb, but it has a similar meaning:
Sunspots often affect radio communication.
7. Accept is a verb - to accept a prize or a point of view
Except means 'apart from':
Except for two students all the class spoke Arabic.
8. It's is a contraction for 'it is'.
Its is a possessive pronoun:
The ancient symbol showed a snake eating its own tail.
9. Principle is a noun meaning a kind of rule or belief
Principal is an adjective or noun meaning 'chief or 'leading':
Zurich is the principal city of Switzerland.
10. Compliment is a noun or verb mean to praise.
Complement is a verb meaning to enhance or add to:
The taste of lemon complemented the rich flavour of the fish.
Some mistakes in written English are caused by two words having similar spelling or pronunciation but different meanings e.g. except and accept.
Can you spot the mistakes in the following sentences? Correct each one.
1) Tower Bridge is one of the most famous sites in London.
2) Only seven out of a class of sixteen past the examination.
3) The students agreed that the lecture was quiet interesting.
4) Millions of people are trying to loose weight.
5) The oil company is planning to rise prices next year.
6) Sunspots often effect radio communication.
7) Accept for two students all the class spoke Arabic.
8) The ancient symbol showed a snake eating it's own tail.
9) Zurich is the principle city of Switzerland.
10) The taste of lemon complimented the rich flavour of the fish.
Answers in the next post!
Most students are familiar with the common English prepositions of time and place:
Around the world birth rates fell in the twentieth century.
But prepositions that follow verbs can be more confusing. Compare:
Scientists are looking into the problem of resistance to antibiotics.
In nurseries, one carer can only look after three babies.
Dictionaries allow us to look up the exact meanings of words.
In each case, the main verb (to look) is the same, but the meaning is changed by the use of different prepositions.
The following verbs + prepositions are commonly used in academic writing:
agree with - Professor Yu agreed with Jones and Hillier (1997)
believe in - 45% of the group believed in ghosts
concentrate/ focus on - The present study will focus on the economic costs of the conflict
consist of - Parliament consists of two Houses - the Commons and the Lords
depend on - The policy depended on a supply of cheap energy
learn from - All students should learn from their mistakes
specialise in - She hopes to specialise in the history of Greenland
Many academic subjects expect students to present statistical data in their written work. It is usually better to support argument with precise numbers rather than vague statements:
Many French companies were forced to reduce their workforce.
35% of French companies employing less than 100 people were forced to reduce their workforce.
Numbers 1 - 10 are normally written as words; above that figures are used:
There are three types of ants on the island, which covers just 17 hectares.
Note that there is no final 's' with hundred/ thousand/ million:
About seven million people died during the famine.
Too many statistics can be difficult for the reader to understand. The following phrases are commonly used to simplify numerical information:
one in ten, ten percent
a third/ quarter, fifth
a tenfold increase (10 x)
to double/ to halve
a small/ large percentage/ proportion
the majority ( + 50% )
a minority ( - 50% )
twice (2 x) as many
Many international students who arrive at a college to study in English can speak the language well enough for normal life: shopping, travelling and meeting people. But the same students are often surprised to find that writing essays and reports in English is much more difficult. It can be helpful to think about the reasons for this situation.
Firstly, speaking is usually done face to face. If your listener can't understand you, then they can look puzzled and ask you to repeat. But this doesn't work with a reader! When we write, we usually have little idea who may read our work, so we have to write as clearly as possible so that it is easy to understand.
With academic writing, writers and readers have to learn special conventions: such as using capital letters in certain places. If you do not follow these conventions your meaning may be unclear and your teacher may have difficulty assessing your work.
Another issue is vocabulary. Most academic subjects require writers to use semi-formal language which is different from the idiomatic language used in speech. One example is using verbs like 'continue' instead of phrasal verbs such as 'go on'. In addition, all subjects use words in special ways which have to be learnt: for example in Political Science 'actor' has a particular meaning which is unconnected to the theatre.
Conjunctions are words which link together parts of sentences, or link sentences together into paragraphs:
The experiment was repeated three times, but the results were totally consistent.
There are frequent strikes. However, the economy remains strong.
Words such as but, however, although, whereas, while, yet, despite are a special type of conjunction: conjunctions of opposition. It is vital to understand how these work both for reading and writing.
These conjunctions are signposts which tell the reader that two sides of a situation are being presented, often a positive and a negative, for example:
frequent strikes = negative
strong economy = positive
Note the position of the conjunction in the following:
Although/ while there are frequent strikes, the economy remains strong.
There are frequent strikes, but/ yet the economy remains strong.
There are frequent strikes. Nevertheless, the economy remains strong.
Students are strongly advised NOT to use 'On the one hand .... on the other ...' as it is frequently mis-used.
